Production, proliferation and effects of landmines and cluster bombs
Anti-personnel landmines
The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (Mine Ban Treaty) entered into force in 1999. The Convention only covers anti-personnel mines and therefore excludes anti-vehicle mines. Article 1 of the Convention outlines the following general obligations of countries that have ratified or acceded to the Convention (States Parties):
1.Each State Party undertakes never under any circumstances to:
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use anti-personnel mines
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develop, produce, otherwise acquire, stockpile, retain or transfer to anyone, directly or indirectly, anti-personnel mines
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assist, encourage or induce, in any way, anyone to engage in any activity prohibited to a State Party under this Convention
2.Each State Party undertakes to destroy or ensure the destruction of all anti-personnel mines in accordance with the provisions of this Convention.
Currently, there are over 150 States Parties to the Convention. In the past, more than 50 states produced anti-personnel mines. At the time of writing, 12 remain: China, Cuba, India, Iran, Myanmar, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, Singapore, South Korea, the United States and Vietnam. None of these countries are States Parties to the Convention. Most of them are not actively producing anti-personnel landmines, but rather reserve the right to do so. According to the Landmine Monitor (Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor), a joint initiative of the International Campaign to ban Landmines and the Cluster Munition Coalition, active production may be ongoing only in India, Myanmar and Pakistan. At the same time, some non-state armed groups or rebel groups in Afghanistan, Colombia, India and Myanmar produce anti-personnel mines, mostly victim-activated improvised explosive devices (IEDs).
At least 10 countries that have not joined the Convention have enacted moratoria on anti-personnel landmine exports. These are China, India, Israel, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Poland, Singapore, South Korea, Russia and the United States.
Technological developments over the last decade have seen the creation of so-called smart mines, particularly by the United States, which is not a State Party to the Convention. These mines are designed to self-destruct and self-deactivate after a certain period of time. However, like regular mines, they are still indiscriminate when they are active, meaning that they still cannot distinguish between the contact of a soldier, civilian or animal. Also, defects are always possible, and some may fail to self-destruct or self-deactivate, remaining live indefinitely. So-called smart mines are often dropped by air in large numbers and are not marked or monitored, thus posing the same risk to civilians as regular mines.
Cluster munitions
The Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM) entered into force in 2010. Article 1 of the Convention outlines the following general obligations of countries that have ratified or acceded to the Convention (States Parties):
1.Each State Party undertakes never under any circumstances to:
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use cluster munitions
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develop, produce, otherwise acquire, stockpile, retain or transfer to anyone, directly or indirectly, cluster munitions
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assist, encourage or induce, in any way, anyone to engage in any activity prohibited to a State Party under this Convention
2.Paragraph 1 of this Article applies to explosive bomblets that are specifically designed to be dispersed or released from dispensers affixed to aircraft.
3.This Convention does not apply to mines. At the time or writing, there are over 70 States Parties to the Convention (Côte d‘Ivoire and Honduras ratified the Convention in March 2012). This means that over 70 countries have committed to, among other things, ban the production and trade of cluster bombs. Ten of these States Parties, along with six signatories to the Convention (who are not yet States Parties), have since stopped the production of cluster bombs: Australia, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Chile, Croatia, France, Germany, Iraq, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.
In the past, a total of 34 countries developed or produced more than 200 different types of cluster bombs. At the time of writing, the Cluster Munitions Monitor believes that 17 countries produce cluster bombs or reserve the right to do so: Brazil, China, Egypt, Greece, India, Iran, Israel, North Korea, South Korea, Pakistan, Poland, Romania, Russia, Singapore, Slovakia, Turkey and the United States. None of these countries have joined the Convention.
Due to a lack of information, it is not possible to know the full scope of the global trade in cluster bombs. The Cluster Munitions Monitor has identified at least 15 countries that have transferred more than 50 types of cluster bombs to at least 60 other countries in the past. In recent years, Brazil, Israel, South Korea, Slovakia and Turkey exported cluster bombs, while States Parties France, Germany, and Spain exported cluster bombs prior to their adoption of the Convention. The following countries that have not joined the Convention have received cluster bombs exports since 2005: Georgia, India, Pakistan, Slovakia, Turkey and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
The Cluster Munitions Monitor believes that the United States has likely been the world leader in exports of cluster bomb, having transferred hundreds of thousands of cluster bombs containing tens of millions of bomblets of unknown reliability to at least 30 countries. Nevertheless, while the United States has not joined the Convention, it has since enacted a moratorium on cluster bomb exports, along with Singapore. The United States has also developed newer models of cluster bombs that are designed for greater accuracy and are equipped with self-destruct fuses.
Impact of landmines and cluster bombs
Landmines and cluster bombs cause similar long lasting and devastating humanitarian costs. The blast from these weapons causes physical injuries like blindness, burns, destroyed limbs and shrapnel wounds. Victims may die from the blast, while those who survive often have to have limbs amputated resulting in long stays in hospital and require extensive and long-term rehabilitation.
In addition to the physical impact of these weapons, landmines and cluster bombs also pose a threat to the development and well-being of communities. These weapons can be found on footpaths, farmers’ fields, forests, deserts, along borders, in and surrounding houses and schools, and in other places where people are carrying out their daily activities. In fact, the Cluster Munition Coalition (CMC) estimates that 60 per cent of cluster bomb casualties are injured while going about their normal activities.
What is more, the fear of stepping on a landmine or disturbing an unexploded bomblet often deters civilians from engaging in agricultural production. As a result, this negatively affects economic productivity and can significantly hinder post-conflict reconstruction and development efforts. It can also impede the delivery of humanitarian aid, as well as civilians’ access to community infrastructure such as electricity and clean water The return of refugees and internally displaced persons is often denied until the land is clear of mines and unexploded bomblets, which can take years.
