Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR)
Following the end of an armed conflict, the international community is often needed to support the stabilisation and reconstruction of the affected country(-ies). An important aspect of this support is to deploy a United Nations peacekeeping or observation missions to ensure that all parties to the conflict respect their commitments to end armed conflict. On behalf of the UN Secretary General, the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO), which was founded in 1992, is responsible for leading such missions, which are composed of armed soldiers from various UN Member States. Part of the mandate of UN peacekeeping missions is often the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of former combatants—DDR. The United Nations Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration Resource Centre (UNDDR) currently conducts country missions in Africa (Burundi, Central African Republic, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda), in the Asia–Pacific region (Afghanistan, Nepal and Solomon Islands) as well as in Central America (Haiti).
What is DDR?
DDR is a process in which men, women and children who participating in a fighting force are formally disbanded from this force and return to civilian life and employment. Depending on the country and the conflict, DDR varies from one context to another. In order for DDR to be successful, the process must therefore consider and be implemented according to the local context, which includes an understanding of the country and its people, the (conflict) history, the culture and the local economy. If any of this knowledge is missing, DDR is unlikely to succeed.
What does DDR mean in detail?
Disarmament: This is usually the first step in a DDR process, where the fighters relinquish their arms, mostly in specially prepared centres, such as camps. It must be said, though, that disarmament alone does not automatically create safety. It can also contribute to a worsening of the security situation, for instance when the credibility of the armistice or peace agreement is questioned or when disarmament is not voluntary and is carried out under great duress.
Demobilisation: Demobilisation is the formal release of fighters and the dissolution of a fighting force – be it a professional army or a rebel force. Often, a formal document seals the transition from military to civilian life. This, however, is only the beginning of a much longer process that first and foremost has to be completed in the minds of those affected. During the demobilisation process, former fighters often receive medical or psychological treatment as well as support with everyday necessities, such as food, shelter and clothing. Demobilisation officials hold individual talks with former combatants and collect their data with the overall aim to learn what each former combatant would like to do once demobilised, whether they are interested in any of the skills training courses offered via the DDR programme, and where he/she wants to settle down
Reintegration: The final step is reintegration. Reintegration is a medium- to long-term process that includes the provision of training to former combatants, income generation opportunities, and cash payments. All of this serves to increase the potential of former combatants and their families to integrate back into economic and social life. Socio-economic reintegration is a very challenging and difficult path. Economic structures in post-conflict countries are often weak due to destroyed infrastructure from the armed conflict, which caused economic development to come to a standstill. What is more, some fighters are socially stigmatised because they committed atrocities against the civilian population during the armed conflict. Reintegration is particularly difficult when former fighters have learnt nothing but fighting and do not have any civilian skills or knowledge which might permit them to gain a sustainable income based on a peaceful activity.
Therefore, socio-economic reintegration deals with:
- physical and psychological health,
- adaptation to and integration in civilian life ,
- finding a job and generating income,
- gaining recognition and receiving social status.
Political reintegration focuses on access to political processes that also include developing an informed opinion of one’s own. It is not only about elections but mainly about participation in societal processes such as political party work, participation in civil society or in different decision-making processes in society.
Hence, disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration is by no means a simple sequence of technical steps that former combatants have to take. DDR is a political process with many connections to areas such as:
- security sector reform,
- creation of security and stability in the country,
- economic (re-)construction of the country,
- reconciliation processes,
- fight against HIV / AIDS,
- political adjustment processes,
- cultural issues regarding the possession of weapons (militarised manhood),
- having to deal with groups that are not interested in peace.
What does DDR cost?
The participation of one person in a DDR process in 2006 cost on average approx. Euro 1,200 (Caramés, 2009). This amount is by no means paid out to the participant but denotes the costs of a DDR programme per person. It is made up of in-kind benefits or costs for schooling and further training. In light of the generally low per capita income of most countries where DDR processes are currently taking place, this average is remarkably high. Examples from 2008 (Caramés & Sanz, 2009) underline this: the DDR process in Angola (from 2003 to 2009) amounted to euro 181,000,000 for 138,000 participants; the DDR process in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (2005 to 2008) cost euro 18,400,000 for 30,000 participants.
Total costs of such a DDR process can be broken down, depending on the origin of the funds into:
- Costs of the UN mission,
- Costs of the UN Development Programme (UNDP) or World Bank for reintegration,
- Costs incurred to the national government (personnel of the reintegration office, etc.)
In the past decade, the character of DDR has changed dramatically. While DDR during the Cold War focussed on the disarmament and demobilisation of state armies, it became part of transformation processes from conflict to peace in the 1990s. Even though classic peacekeeping and monitoring missions still exist, UN missions today represent more complex state-building and -stabilisation processes in which DDR is only a part.
In the following info texts, some examples of DDR are presented.
Sources and further information:
- Caramés, A. (2009). Analysis of the Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DD&R) programs existing in the world during 2006. Bellaterra: School for a Culture of Peace, 23.
- Caramés, Albert und Eneko Sanz (2009), DD&R 2009. Analysis of Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DD&R) Programmes in the World during 2008. Bellaterra: School for a Culture of Peace.
- Deutsche Gesellschaft für die Vereinten Nationen e.V. (German)
- United Nations Peacekeeping: DDR in peace operations
- United Nations Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Resource Centre
- ZIF Zentrum für Internationale Friedenseinsätze (German)
